Group Members: Zoe, Megan, Christy, Ryan, and May

1) Disability & Human Trafficking

Zoe Handler


Video link:
Kids Tortured into Disability to Beg



Human trafficking, particularly sex trafficking, has made headlines across the world. But in spite of the media attention there are few concrete statistics since the underground nature of human bondage today makes problematic to compile information about the number enslaved, let alone roughly calculating the extent to which certain groups such as disabled persons are trafficked and enslaved. Few resources have been devoted to the topic thus far but the available evidence suggests that the trafficking of disabled persons occurs regularly within the trafficking business. On the whole disabled persons face higher levels of abuse, stigma, and economic limitation, all of which are risk factors for trafficking. According to the Equality and Human Rights Commission disabled people are four times more likely to be a victim of crime. [1] Such high victimization rates are indicative of a systematic issue of abuse against disabled persons that is likely to also be replicated in the trafficking trade.

Though all forms of slavery have similar characteristics, the experiences of disabled people who are trafficked are markedly different from their able bodied counterparts. Language barriers caused by deafness, mobility constraints caused by physical handicap, and a widespread belief that those who have cognitive impairments are unable to give accurate testimony are all things that further hinder victims from both escaping and seeking justice. The trafficking of disabled persons is something that requires more attention, research and consideration in the larger fight against modern day slavery.

One incident that brought the issue of contemporary slavery to the forefront of the American public conscious was the case of several Deaf Mexican individuals, who came to the United States in hopes of finding prosperity but instead were coerced into selling “key chains and miniature screwdriver kits in the subways, at airports, on roadsides... The items would be attached to cards explaining that the seller was deaf. The peddlers would spend 12 to 16 hours a day in subway cars, dropping the trinkets in the laps of riders.” [2] None of the 56 peddlers were compensated for their work and were forced to live in cramped and squalid living conditions with the constant threat of violence hanging over their heads. Any attempt to contact authorities or outsiders for assistance was further complicated by the fact that the victims were fluent in only Mexican Sign Language. They only were able to receive assistance as a result of note given to police which was composed with the assistance of a married couple that victims met by chance in Newark Airport while peddling goods. [3]

Isolation - both physical and psychological - is one method employed by traffickers to maintain control over their victims. Deaf trafficking victims face the very unique isolation of language barriers since few members of the general public use sign. In fact The Human Trafficking Project notes that deaf Thai women are deliberately targeted for sexual slavery since their inability to verbally communicate with ‘customers’ makes it difficult to explain their situation and plead for help. [4] In the case of deaf persons trafficked across international borders - such as the deaf Mexican peddlers - seeking assistance becomes even more problematic since the odds of both escaping and finding someone who speaks their native sign language becomes extremely slim.

As the story of the deaf Mexican peddlers also illustrates, the trafficking of disabled persons has some unique financial incentives since disability can help to increase profit margins for traffickers. Disability is generally understood to be something which must be given sympathy, meaning that disabled beggars and peddlers will likely earn more money than their typically bodied counterparts. Disability is seen as so profitable vis-a-vis forced begging that gangs in India will kidnap children with the sole intention of physically harming them in such a way as to make them visibly disabled and then sending them out on the streets to beg. [5]

It is this underlying assumption that disabled beggars are more profitable than able bodied ones which also drives “racketeers [to] buy disabled children from their parents and force them to work the streets as beggars.” [6] Victims are most frequently forced to beg in front of mosques and other such religiously focused spaces. Areas with a high number of Western tourists also see a high concentration of such activity. Such forced begging has been reported in China, throughout the Iranian-Afghanistan border and in Pakistan, where “hundreds of people with disabilities are being trafficked to neighboring countries to beg there, according to the police. Many come from the southern province of Sindh, and are destined for Iran.” [7]

China has, in recent years, attracted widespread media attention and criticism for the prevalence of trafficking throughout the country. Media reports have been focused mainly at the coerced labor done at the state level but a narrative about the labor coercion of disabled persons has also recently begun to emerge. [8] “In an adrenaline-paced economy with a chronic shortage of manual laborers, ruthless recruiters often prey on China's mentally disabled ... Young women have been sold by psychiatric hospitals as sexual partners and wives; mentally disabled young men have been imprisoned as forced laborers in coal mines and brick factories.” [9] Some men enslaved in the brick factories have been outright kidnapped or sold by either family or institutions charged with taking care of disabled persons. For instance it was recently discovered that in southwest China an unlicensed home for disabled persons illegally sold at least 70 of their mentally ill residents into slavery. [10]

Additionally it is important to consider disability is not just the result of random genetic variability. Environmental factors can increase the chances of developing disability. Nutritional deficiencies and toxic exposure are all things which increase the chances of developing disability, meaning that those who are disabled typically tend to come from impoverished communities. Such impoverishment might drive members of a community to participate in the trafficking of disabled persons for monetary gain.

Though legislation in China states that “all permanent residents and non-permanent residents of Hong Kong are equal before the law, and enjoy the basic rights and freedom under the protection of the law” cultural attitudes which socially undervalue the disabled still persist. [11] Legislation is a necessary part in addressing any social ill but is not a means to an end. A society’s social and cultural values must shift in order to create true change - in this case those with disability must be seen with respect and granted the same human rights as their able bodied counterparts. The idea of mainstreaming disabled persons into functional members of society is one that has gained very little traction in China. In spite of enacting disability-specific anti-discrimination legislation the “Chinese government and society tends to treat the disabled with condescension, treating them like a charity case instead of giving them equal respect.” [12]

This attitude is not unique to China, however. Social stigma surrounding disability exists globally and results in a heightened vulnerability for disabled persons. Differently abled persons are commonly seen as burdens and thus are socially devalued, leaving them without strong networks of community support. Abled bodied persons often do not have a complete understanding of disability, particularly in the ‘developing nations’ of the world, and thus exclude those who are disabled from the day-to-day functions of society. [13] For many, differently bodied individuals are supposed to be hidden out of view and isolated from the rest of ‘normal’ society, all things which make the disabled at risk for exploitation and bondage. Traditionally the disabled also face extreme economic and employment limitations, leaving them all the more vulnerable to hyper exploitation. In China, for instance, disabled people earn salaries which equal less than half of what their able bodied counterparts earn. [14] Certain costs associated with specific disabilities serve to only heighten this risk of falling into debt bondage.

Education - often seen as a way out of poverty - is something which disabled persons in ‘developing nations’ have very limited access to. Accommodations for sensory disabilities are limited and curriculum developed specifically for the needs of disabled students are a rarity. Current research suggests that less than 2% of disabled children globally are recipients of formalized education. In fact disability has been shown to a greater obstacle to receiving education than gender, socio-economic background and race. [15] Lack of education only serves to fuel the cycle of poverty experienced by the disabled, further increasing their risk for becoming trafficking victims.

As a result of their systematic exclusion from the mainstream, disabled people are left with very few options, making them desirable potential targets for recruiters and traffickers. Disabled women in particular are susceptible to trafficking, since they must contend with social, political and economic barriers caused by “‘double discrimination’ ... [that] result[s] from their disability and from their status as a woman.” [16] Disabled children also face similar heightened susceptibility.

In spite of the fact that, as a population, the disabled exhibit high risk for being brought into trafficking there has been little done to address the issue. Initiatives which focus on creating economic self-sufficiency for the disabled should be undertaken in order to eradicate their risk for becoming trafficking victims. Additionally social attitudes about the supposed ineptitude of disabled persons need to be challenged. The disabled need to be given more focus in future studies in order to fully explore the nature of contemporary slavery. Though only isolated cases involving the bondage of the disabled have come to light so far, this in no way indicates that the enslavement of the disabled does not happen on a wide scale. Slavery is still very much a secret world. A world in which more headway needs to be made, particularly in relation to traditionally marginalized groups like the disabled.


Notes
1 Equality and Human Rights Commission, Promoting the safety and security of disabled people, 2009, 4.
2 Jim Dwyer, “Descent Into Slavery, and a Ladder to Another Life,” The New York Times Online, June 22, 2010.
3 IBID.
4 “The Human Trafficking Project,” The Human Trafficking Project, __http://www.traffickingproject.org__/ (accessed September 2, 2011)
5 Sara Sidner, “Gang Profits from Maimed Child Beggars,” The CNN Freedom Project, May 4, 2011.
6 “Disabled Children Sold into Slavery as Beggars,” World News Daily, July 22, 2007
7 “PAKISTAN: Disabled - and at risk of being trafficked,” IRIN: Humanitarian News and Analysis, March 14, 2011.
8 Kevin Bales and Zoe Trodd, eds., To Plead Our Own Cause (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2008), 19-20.
9 Barbara Demick, “China’s disabled slaves: Slavery ordeal points up plight of China’s Disabled,” LA Times Online, February 26, 2011.
10 “China shelter ‘sold 70 disabled people into slavery’,” Sydney Morning Herald Online, December 15, 2010.
11 Errol Mendes and Sakanthala Srighanthan, Confronting discrimination and inequality in China: Chinese and Canadian perspectives (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2009), 262.
12 Maureen Fan, “Beijing Welcomes The Disabled as China Never Has,” The Washington Post Online, September 6, 2008.
13 Mendes and Srighanthan, 247
14 Sharon LaFraniere, “A Miniature World Magnifies Dwarf Life,” The New York Times Online, March 3, 2010
15Deon Filmer, “Disability, Poverty and Schooling in Developing Countries: Results from 11 Household Surveys.” World Bank SP Discussion Paper No. 0539. (2005): 9-15,
16 Joe Amon “Invisible Women,” The Huffington Post Online, March 8th, 2010.


Bibliography

Amon, Joe. “Invisible Women,” The Huffington Post Online, March 8th, 2010.
Bales, Kevin and Zoe Trodd, eds., To Plead Our Own Cause. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2008.
“China shelter ‘sold 70 disabled people into slavery’,” Sydney Morning Herald Online, December 15, 2010.
Demick, Barbara. “China’s disabled slaves: Slavery ordeal points up plight of China’s Disabled,” LA Times Online, February 26, 2011.
“Disabled Children Sold into Slavery as Beggars,” World News Daily, July 22, 2007
Dwyer, Jim. “Descent Into Slavery, and a Ladder to Another Life,” The New York Times Online, June 22, 2010.
Equality and Human Rights Commission, Promoting the safety and security of disabled people. April 2009.
Fan, Maureen. “Beijing Welcomes The Disabled as China Never Has,” The Washington Post Online, September 6, 2008.
Filmer, Deon. “Disability, Poverty and Schooling in Developing Countries: Results from 11 Household Surveys.” Word Bank SP Discussion Paper NO. 0539 (2005): 9-15.
http://hpod.pmhclients.com/pdf/filmer-disability-poverty.pdf
LaFraniere, Shannon. “A Miniature World Magnifies Dwarf Life,” The New York Times Online, March 3, 2010.
Mendes, Errol, and Sakanthala Srighanthan. Confronting Discrimination and Inequality in China: Chinese and Canadian Perspectives. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 2009.
“PAKISTAN: Disabled - and at risk of being trafficked,” IRIN: Humanitarian News and Analysis, March 14, 2011.
Sidner, Sara. “Gang Profits from Maimed Child Beggars,” The CNN Freedom Project, May 4, 2011.
“The Human Trafficking Project,” The Human Trafficking Project,__traffickingproject.org__/(accessed September 2, 2011)

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2) Lack of Government Responsibility

May Yang

Although Slavery has been abolished with the Civil War in 1865, the use of humans as commodities to serve as fast moneymakers still has not ceased. To this day, underground slavery businesses and prostitution are thriving all over the world. Lack of government responsibility is to blame. Governments are made to serve the people of whom it governs; yet this statement is so wrongly believed in governments in developing countries all over the world.
Governments of developing countries have a lot to fix when it comes to their system of law: A simple payment to the local police allows the use of violence without fear or arrest. [1] The police are supposed to be the good guys: “Also called police force. an organized civil force for maintaining order, preventing and detecting crime, and enforcing the laws.” As defined from dictionary.com, the police are supposed to serve the law but yet instead, we see them doing exactly the opposite. Policemen are seen as trustworthy people who civilians can trust and turn to in need of help, but in the many stories that are told from people who have been held captive as slaves, it was the policemen who help keep them captive or return them back to their master.

TVPA, known as the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act places countries on tiers to recognize how they are dealing with the issue of human trafficking. With this recognition, they are able to see how badly human trafficking is in that country as a result of how deep the government is corrupted due to that country’s leader and law enforcements.

Tier one: Countries whose governments fully comply with the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s (TVPA) minimum standards. Tier two: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards. Tier two watch list: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards, AND: a) the absolute number of victims of severe forms of trafficking is very significant or is significantly increasing; b) there is a failure to provide evidence of increasing efforts to combat severe forms of trafficking in persons from the previous year; or, c) the determination that a country is making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with minimum standards was based on commitments by the country to take additional future steps over the next year. Tier three: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so.[2]

Some of the countries that are rated as tier one are Australia, Canada, South Korea and France. The governments in these countries are fully cooperating and dealing with the issue of human trafficking. Some of the tier two and tier two watch list countries are Afghanistan (2WL), China (2WL), Cambodia, and Mexico. These countries are trying to comply with the standards of TVPA but have not met them yet. Examples of tier three countries are Iran, North Korea, Burma, and Cuba. These countries do not comply with TVPA standards nor are they trying to put effort in complying. Tier three countries’ governments are the most corrupted and to look into how human trafficking prevails in that country, there are many cases and stories that will be brought up throughout this essay.

In 1979 the Chinese government, in reaction to its exploding population, began limiting to one the number of children Chinese couples could have.[3] Due to this law, a lot of Chinese parents desired a baby boy during this time period so if they had a girl, she would be aborted or abandoned. The state of mind of Chinese couples during this time was still that men were valued more than women. Therefore there was an increase of men and decrease of women in China during this time period. This resulted in women being traded and bought. The women are sold off like animals to Chinese men, many of whom live in China’s impoverished countryside.[4] Women were being trafficked from all over the world but the majority of the women were from North Korea since it was nearby. The trafficked women from North Korea did not own any identification card, which meant that they could be sent back if found out by the government. This is common among other trafficking victims. Victims that were trafficked did now own any identification card or if they were from out of the country and they did not have their passport then this will cause them to be deported back to their country. Many people who knew this fact did not risk jeopardizing their chance of deportation.

Many people would read this and say that it is the government’s fault for the trafficking of women from North Korea for China men. And many would also say that it is the women’s fault for being vulnerable. “But those words are easy for you because you have easy solutions to difficult problems you do not understand, and you do not understand because you do not listen.”[5] This is from a woman named Dina who is from Cambodia. She was trafficked and she still works as a prostitute. She feels that the government should not be judging her because it is the government that has failed her. The government is able to point fingers quickly, but is slow to fix the problem it has created. The government does not recognize that it is its job to create better opportunities for someone like her to help her live a better life holding a more respectable job. Dina works in Cambodia and that country is rated as tier two.

Under an authoritarian regime, disagreeing can be seen as a crime. This makes life for us rather difficult. Sometimes dangerous. But certainly not dull.[6] Aung San Suu Kyi is recognized as the leader of the struggle for human rights and democracy. The people of Burma love her because she loves the people of Burma and cares for them. Since the country has been so authoritative, life is hard for its inhabitants. And the country’s vast military enables further enslavement: in the case of the pipeline project and numerous other instances of forced labor, its military (including some of the 70,000 child soldiers) enforces enslavement for non-combat purposes.[7] With the use of child military, it teaches the children to grow up to destroy the country because building the government pipeline destroys the mountains of Burma. But the children do not know that, because they are not educated, because they are not loved, and because they are not taught what is right and what is wrong. The generation of children who could have been educated to build the country higher has been tossed away without regret by the Burmese government. “Uninspired by my studies, I started reading articles about the 75 percent of Burma’s population who lived in the countryside, praised as the purest embodiment of our cultural heritage.”[8] The countryside of Burma is beautiful. But since the construction of the pipeline begun, it has destroyed many homes. Although the pipeline is considered important for China’s growing energy needs and imports Burma’s natural gas.

Government corruption can be seen all over the world. And it can be shown through many different ways too. “For example, in Afghanistan, armed militias kidnap and traffic people, but the ongoing armed conflict also has a less direct effect on slavery: it increases migration, leaving female and child refugees exposed to traffickers.”[9] Since the ongoing-armed conflict leaves females and children with no protection from higher authority, it increases their vulnerability thus leading them into slavery. In this example, it shows that the government is too busy with fighting that it does not protect its people and instead, it hurts its inhabitants more than any fight the government is involved in.
By 2002 in Sierra Leone, after eleven years of civil war, around ninety-five percent of displaced families had experienced sexual assault, including rape, torture, and forced prostitution.[10] With this government busy fighting a civil war, there is much room for people to come and go and do as they please without getting caught easily. This paves the way for human traffickers to easily pick up women for prostitution and/or labor and children for labor. “And across the whole African continent, decades of civil strife have displaced millions of people - approximately four million, according to IOM – and left them vulnerable to enslavement.[11] With people having to move around and being displaced, it will be hard for them to adapt and to make a living according to what they need because they do not know how to do anything if they are moved from all that they know. Enslavement quickly captures people who are lost because they have nowhere to go and no sense of direction due to instability. With no choice left, people willingly go into slavery to earn money.

The U.S. Department of Justice estimates that between 14,500 and 17,500 foreign-born individuals are trafficked into the United States annually: 5,000-7,000 from East Asia and the Pacific, 3,500-5,500 from Europe and Eurasia, 3,500-5,500 from South America, 200-700 from Mexico accounts for the majority of federal trafficking cases.[12] There are traffickers all over the world. The use of slavery can be for many things: agricultural work, child military, prostitution, domestic servitude and much more. Yet the fact still lies in the truth that inhabitants of developing countries get the worst punch because of slavery. Already in developing countries, the majority of its people are uneducated. For example: The educational problems facing Burma are both numerous and difficult.[13]So finding a decent paying job in a limited workforce is already tough. To make matters worse, the government is supplying traffickers a way to use people as disposable commodities to make fast money for them instead of protecting its people by ensuring education and supplying adequate jobs where needed to improve the state of that country.

The profits of the trade in women attracted criminals. Officials from local governments urged law enforcement to regulate the market in women.[14] When local governments decide to take action, this will be the starting point of when underground slavery will finally begin to end. Only with the support of the government will people learn to appreciate themselves and live a better life. But until then, things will remain as they are, not changing at all.

America has been known as a country that many foreigners desire to run to; many have tried numerous times and multiple ways to get into America. It is known as the country that holds the best future for anyone of every background, tongue, and age. The glue that had held it together was not blood or soil or a common religion or a long mythic history but a shared set of principles for the arrangement of society.[15] With this in mind, it is true that in America, the government is made to serve its people, not the other way around. Thus, people from all around the world feel that they must flee from where they live currently to come to America to achieve better living conditions and job opportunities. If countries such as Burma, China, and Cambodia would sustain a government that was best fit for their people then we will see that the inhabitants there do not need to flee from that country because they would be able to live a life that they could respectively say they earned with pride. And with that, the path that was paved for human traffickers will come to close significantly.

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[1] Kevin Bales and Zoe Trodd, To Plead Our Own Cause (Ithaca, New York, 2008), 60
[2] Tier Placements Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142755.htm (accessed September 12, 2011).
[3] Laura Ling and Lisa Ling, SOMEWHERE INSIDE: One Sister’s Captivity in North Korea and the Other’s Fight to Bring Her Home (New York, 2010), 7
[4] Laura Ling and Lisa Ling, SOMEWHERE INSIDE: One Sister’s Captivity in North Korea and the Other’s Fight to Bring Her Home (New York, 2010), 7
[5] Kevin Bales and Zoe Trodd, To Plead Our Own Cause (Ithaca, New York, 2008), 106
[6] Aung San Suu Kyi, Letters from Burma (Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1996), 123
[7] Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd, and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery (Oxford, England, 2009), 119
[8] Carolyn Wakeman and San San Tin, No Time For Dreams: Living in Burma under Military Rule (Lanham, Maryland, 2009), 40
[9] Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd, and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery (Oxford, England, 2009), 108
[10] Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd, and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery (Oxford, England, 2009), 108
[11] Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd, and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery (Oxford, England, 2009), 108-109
[12] Kevin Bales and Zoe Trodd, To Plead Our Own Cause (Ithaca, New York, 2008), 140
[13] Owen Hillman, Education in Burma (N.p, 1946), 533
[14] Hsieh Bao Hua, The Market in Concubines in Jiangnan during Ming-Qing China (N.p, 2008), 274
[15] William Lee Miller, Arguing About Slavery (New York, 1995), 23

Bibliography

Bales, Kevin, and Zoe Trodd, To Plead Our Own Cause. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, 2008

Bales, Kevin, Zoe Trodd, and Alex Kent Williamson. Modern Slavery. Oxford, England: Oneworld Publications, 2009

Hillman, Owen. Education in Burma. N.p: Journal of Negro Education, 1946

Hua, Hsieh Bao. The Market in Concubines in Jiangnan during Ming-Qing China. N.p: Journal of Family History, 2008

Kyi, Aung San Suu. Letters From Burma. New York, New York: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1996

Ling, Laura and Lisa Ling. Somewhere Inside: One Sister’s Captivity in North Korea and the Other’s Fight To Bring Her Home. New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2010

Miller, William Lee. Arguing About Slavery. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1995

“Tier Placements.” Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. 14 September 2011
<http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142755.htm>

Wakeman, Carolyn and San San Tin. No Time for Dreams: Living in Burma under Military Rule. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2009

Government made for the people

Burma: Once a beautiful countryside

Burma: Constructing Pipeline ruins countryside

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3) Economics of Slavery

Christy Ou
For my research paper, I want to look into the economics of slave trafficking. I’m curious as to how much traffickers pay to smuggle or bring these slaves across borders, and how much slave traffickers profit from the slaves that they bring over. Not only the sole numbers of expense and revenue but also how traffickers operate with economic gains in mind. This is a topic that interests me because although there a lot of slavery in the modern world goes undetected, there is still a risk of being caught doing this underground business. So it makes me wonder how much slave traffickers profit from doing this to risk being caught in these highly illegal activities.
I will be using research from books, peer reviewed articles, and internet sites. In my research, I have found a few interesting articles. One article is a peer edited article titled “Economics of Human Trafficking” which is so similar to my research topic that it was a lot of help getting me started. This article explains how businesses and people are always on the lookout for cheap labor and therefore turn to slave traffickers to deliver slaves to employers. It sheds some light on how victims are pulled into this vicious cycle of slavery, how slave traffickers feed into this cycle for profit, and how employers support this cycle by buying slaves with the goal of cheap labor in mind. Another source I found was a book called Sex Trafficking: Inside the Business of Modern Slavery. This book has detailed accounts of the slaves that the author Siddharth Kara has encountered. One narrative was of a Thai woman who was offered a job as a waitress in a German restaurant so she could pay for her father’s medical bill. Instead, she was taken to Los Angeles to work in a massage parlor. She was forced to work 84 hours a week giving massages and performing sex work. She easily made seven thousand five hundred dollars a month but only one hundred dollars was sent back home to her parents. She is just one of many victims who are exploited for other people’s profit. I hope to find out more about the role of slave traffickers and how much they gain from this “business”.

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4) The World of Slavery

Megan Arriola
Slavery in the 19th century was very localized. The slaves were all accounted for and their course of travel was heavily documented. Slavery was legal in this time so there was no need to hide the slaves, there was no need to illegally transport them; it was a societal norm that their economy depended on. The main practice of slavery in the 19th century was chattel slavery, in which the slaves were treated as commodities and could be bought, sold, or traded, and were forced to work in plantations. In this day and age slavery is much different. There are different categories of slavery, different victims who are vulnerable to these different categories of slavery, and it is happening all over the world. Because slavery is illegal, the market for slaves takes place underground. The types of slavery that will be focused on are debt bondage, contract slavery, forced labor, war slavery, prison slavery, the trokosi system, and the restavec system. There isn’t just one nationality, ethnicity, or race that is vulnerable to all of these; rather, it is different people of different backgrounds who fit the description for the type of slaves the recruiters are looking for.

Debt bondage is the most common form of slavery.1 This occurs primarily in Southern Asia. People are provided with a loan and sometimes provided the opportunity to travel to another country to do work there. In turn for the loan or the price of travel, that person agrees to work off the debt to whoever it was who provided the loan—except it doesn’t exactly work that way. The loan provider charges a large interest fee, sometimes up to 50% and so the worker has no chance of ever paying off the debts. Instead the worker continues to work with little or no pay and under harsh conditions until he or she finds a way to escape or die, which in that case, the debt is carried on to the worker’s children. Shanti, a victim of debt bondage slavery in India reported that she owes “8,000 rupees.” She said her “husband took out the loan and now that he has died…the contractor forces me to work for him.” She continued to talk about her average earnings. Shanti reported that she would earn about 400 rupees every ten or twelve days.2 Debt bondage happens mostly in Southern Asia because of the harsh living conditions that the majority of common people suffer. They take out loans to survive but do so without enough knowledge on how difficult it will be to pay back the loans. In Shanti’s case, her husband died and the debt was passed onto her and soon her daughter will be forced to start working with her mother, together they will be breaking stones to pay back their debt.

Similar to debt bondage is contract slavery which is the fastest growing type of slavery.3 Poor people from developing countries are the main victims for this type of slavery. Recruiters come into their country and tell them of a great job opportunity and then the poor people sign the contract. The contract can seem like a technique to lure the innocent into slavery. Because a contract holds legitimate value, the person who will work who signs the contract may feel safe because contracts are meant to be concrete and closely abided to. Included in the contract are statements usually acknowledging that any traveling fare will be paid for via monthly paychecks the worker will receive, but housing and meals will be provided. Vi from Vietnam worked in America Samoa and was a victim of contract slavery. She wrote about her obligations for payments and the debt she had to pay, and how she couldn’t disobey the contract but her boss could. She stated, “We had to pay $200 per month for room and board, which they should have provided according to the contract.”4 In contract slavery, there is a common theme seen throughout each slave’s experience: they find that their boss does not abide by the statements in the contract and so the slave finds his or herself working for little or for nothing.

The category of slavery entitled “forced labor” is perhaps the most known form of slavery today. It includes sex trafficking and any vigorous work without pay, including agricultural slavery. Forced labor is a worldwide type of slavery but is one of the main types of slavery that occurs in the United States. Since border patrol security has increased in the United States, non-citizens find themselves desperate to find other ways to come in the United States. The “American Dream” and glamorization of the great land peaks interest of those who are non-citizens. They want to come so that they can make better money and send it back to their families. These non-citizens will find coyotes, or smugglers, who work to find people who desire a life in the United States and help them cross the border. Once they arrive, they must pay the smuggling fee. Because the non-citizens have no legal papers, they are usually given the option to work on a farm, often they are given this option from the people who helped smuggle them across the border. In certain accounts, these non-citizens find themselves working in poor conditions where they make little or no money. They are beaten if they try to leave and thus become slaves to those who smuggled them into the country. For Miguel, a victim of agricultural slavery who entered the United States, nothing happened as he planned. He thought that if he “could go to the United States and earn $6-7 and hour, maybe in a whole day” he would be able to earn “$48-50.”5 Miguel actually averaged about $7-20 per day, nowhere near what he thought he would earn. He also believed that when he came to the United States, he would be able to change jobs if he didn’t like the one he worked at. Instead, he was threatened for what would happen to him if he left without paying his smuggling fee. He was struck with fear because his bosses never had any false threats, everything they said Miguel knew they meant so he was forced to continue working under these terrible conditions. Unfortunately Miguel is not alone—there are many non-citizens who enter the United States expecting a different world, where there are no poor working conditions and where they will make enough money to send home to their families. Sex trafficking is also a type of slavery that occurs all over the world. It is mostly women who are recruited. Sex slaves are transported from all over the world to the major destination countries (countries that are well-developed, have a high level of food production, and the proportion of the country’s male population over 60 years of age6) like the United States, Germany, Belgium, Greece, Italy, and the Netherlands.7 Women from many different countries, like Albania, the Philippines, Thailand, Nigeria, and Vietnam, are told they have the opportunity for a great job in another country as a model, nanny, or as a waitress. The recruiter will make them feel good about themselves; he will make them feel as if he understands them and is maybe even falling in love with them. He then takes them to another country, sells the girl to a brothel, and never sees her again. The girl is left, confused, wondering when she will begin her new job, waiting for the man that left her to come back, but he doesn’t. Instead it is her owner who will force her to do to her job, which is to have sex with as many clients that demand her. The sex trafficked victim will earn little to no money, and her earnings are given to her boss from her costumers. Maria, who was a sex slave in Italy, France, and Netherlands, shared her testimony about being tricked into sex trafficking. A handsome man came into Maria’s father’s store and made small talk about being new to the town. The father brushed the man off, but a few weeks later when Maria was attending to the store without her father, the same handsome man came in and told her of a modeling opportunity she had in Paris. The handsome man’s coworker came in later to talk to her parents and convinced them that this was a legitimate opportunity. Maria left with her new boss. She believed she was traveling to Paris but was wrong when she ended up in Italy and found out that she would be a prostitute. Her boss took her documents and passports so if she tried to run away she would be imprisoned for being an illegal. She had no way out so she did as she was told and was raped and beaten nonetheless.8 Although sex slavery and agricultural slavery are different types of slavery, they can still be categorized as forced labor because they have a specific task that requires hard work and little rest hours with little or no pay.9

In the sense of prison slavery, people are required to work with no pay for the duration of their imprisonment. This is most common in China where the laogai system is practiced.10 Because China is heavily run by the communist party, it is difficult for the Chinese citizens to promote any values, ideas, or religions that the communist party does not approve of. Under the circumstance that someone tries to promote Christianity, Falun Gong, or any other idea or value that works against the communist party, that person will be imprisoned and sent to work in a laogai system, where he or she will be forced to make popular export products: lamps, sport jerseys, and even Christmas lights. These prisoners had specific quotas that had to be met at the end of each day so they found themselves working overtime to try to meet the ridiculously high standard. This was hard for them to do because they are fed very little and are not allowed to sleep often. Sam, a prior graduate student at Georgia State University, was placed into the laogai system because he wrote a letter concerning his thoughts on Falun Gong, a traditional exercise based on “truthfulness, compassion, and forbearance.” The practice of Falun Gong is not accepted by the communist party in China so he was arrested. He remembers his living conditions: being inside a 300 sq. ft. cell with about twenty others who practice Falun Gong. He remembers being fed only two meals a day and still being expected to work at least fifteen hours per day.11 Prison slavery is most dynamic in China because of their strict rules their government places over its citizens. If anyone speaks out, they can expect to be placed into a laogai.

War slavery is a type of slavery that takes place mostly in West Africa12, but there have been accounts where war slavery has taken place in other countries. Children are sold by their parents, taken, or kidnapped, or persuaded into joining. Once they are in, it is very hard for these children to escape; these children are taken and given weapons and artillery and are expected to commit violent crimes. Under the circumstance that they choose not to, these children are beaten badly by their captors. Aida, a boy living in the Philippines, experienced his involvement with war slavery soon after he passed the second grade.13 He had a large family and they were always hungry and he wanted to help his parents. He stopped going to school because he didn’t want to spend money on education, he needed to spend it on food for his mother, father, and little brothers and sisters. He was always working so hard and recruiters noticed that about him and saw him as easy prey. They told him he would be able to better his family’s condition if he would come work for the peoples’ movement, which was a movement created for farmers to make more money and live better. They told him that if he helped, his family would be helped in turn. He reported that he remembers when they told him he was greatly needed because even if he killed someone, he would not be “penalized because” he “was a minor.” He was strapped with an M16 and was forced into battle. Keep in mind that he had just finished the second grade in elementary school. His family was never helped, which is very common. Recruiters will say anything these victims need to hear.

Religious slavery seems as if it is an oxymoron, but occurs nonetheless. The trokosi system is a form of religious slavery that is very common in Ghana and India. Families are told their sins and the sins of their relatives and ancestors will be ridded if they provide a virgin daughter between the ages eight through fifteen to a fetish priest.14 The daughter is then the priest’s property and will be raped at the will of the priest or his brother or friend. In any circumstance that the girl is impregnated by the priest, the child will not be cared for or supported by the priest. The trokosi’s duration of slavery can last anywhere from 3-10 years and when she is released, she is unmarriageable. Patience, a girl who had a firsthand experience with the trokosi system, provided her testimony about her hardships during her involvement with the trokosi system in Ghana. She stated that, “as a trokosi, you had no rights over the fruits of your labor.”15 She was required to cut trees and burn charcoal for sale and all of her earnings went to her priest. When Patience became an adolescent and had her menstruation, her priest sent her to his brother’s hut to deliver him some fruit. When she arrived there, he raped her. Patience remembers, “He seized me and raped me. I cried and complained but was told to shut up.” This continued until she became pregnant and when her child arrived, the father did not support the baby or Patience herself and let them live full of hunger. Patience is not alone in her story, many other girls in India and Ghana could share similar stories about their involvement in the trokosi system. In another case of religious or spiritual slavery, a recruiter used voodoo to keep the slave from escaping. Joy was recruited in Nigeria and was brought to northern Europe to work. She was told she would have an easy job with a good salary. When she arrived, she was forced to drink blood and swallow a goat’s eye, then afterwards put her hand on a juju. Soon after these events she was put to work as a prostitute. She remembers being told that the juju would kill her if she tried to escape because she already had drank the blood, swallowed the eye, and placed her hand on the juju. She did escape though, it took a while for her to grow courage against the juju but one day, instead of meeting her customer, she ran to the city metro and escaped.

The last type of slavery that will be discussed is the restavec system which is very specific to Haiti.16 Poor Haitian families want better lives for their children so they often send their kids away to live with richer families. The richer families promise to look after the children and to put them into school if the children work for them. This rarely happens the way it is expected to happen. These children in the restavec system are never placed in school and are forced to work extraordinary hours, sometimes from 4 a.m. until the last member of the family goes to sleep. Jean-Robert Cadet is now a Haitian man who is still scarred by his experience as a restavec.17 In his testimony, he talks about how easy it is for someone to enter Haiti and get a child and make her your slave. He states, “You can make her sleep outside, torture her to death, and dump her body in the trash and no one will question you…” He said that the “daily exclusion from any community or family often leaves no visible scars, but the trauma lasts a lifetime.” Today, he is a successful man living in the United States, but every day he sees his past and he can’t get rid of it.

These different people find themselves trapped in different types of slavery all over the world. The have very different stories, but mostly all of these victims experience violence, psychological abuse, and a past that will never be forgotten. Whether it be for debt bondage, forced labor, or religious slavery, these slaves are humans, too, and there is no excuse for them to be treated the way they are all treated.


Bibliography
Aida, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 189-193.
Bales, Kevin et al., Modern Slavery: The Forms of Slavery Today(Oneworld Publication, 2009), 33.
Bales, Kevin et al., Modern Slavery: The Forms of Slavery Today(Oneworld Publication, 2009), 34.
Bales, Kevin et al., Modern Slavery: The Forms of Slavery Today(Oneworld Publication, 2009), 43-44.
Bales, Kevin et al., Modern Slavery: The Forms of Slavery Today(Oneworld Publication, 2009), 46.
Bales, Kevin et al., Modern Slavery: The Forms of Slavery Today(Oneworld Publication, 2009), 112-118.
Kevin Bales et al., Modern Slavery: The Forms of Slavery Today(Oneworld Publication, 2009), 192.
Bales, Kevin and Trodd, Zoe. To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 19-
20.
Bales, Kevin and Trodd, Zoe. To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 66.
Juredini, Ray and Mourkabel, Nayla. “Female Sri Lankan domestic workers in Lebanon: a case of contract slavery”? Journal of
Ethnic and Migration Studies, no. 4 (2004): 581-607.
Maria, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 40-52.
Miguel, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 141-145.
Patience, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 67-69.
Sam, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 21-22.
Shanti, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 46.
Vi, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Personal Stories by Today’s Slaves. (Cornell University Press, 2008), 42-44.

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5 )Recruiters

Ryan Robbins

Slavery is generally believed to be extinct. It is not. It remains very prevalent today. Slavery persists today for many reasons such as unequal economic wealth existing with extreme poverty, which results in a deeply troubling reality – the price tag on a human being is quite low. One reason for this is the widespread and effective practice known as recruiters. Recruiters in modern day human trafficking is to trick or force people into slavery through the use of assorted techniques. These techniques vary slightly from region to region. There are many trends that traffickers tend to share. Traffickers tend to adjust their techniques with time to evade the law and so that they do not fit these stereotypes.


Recruiters in the Americas
In the Americas contract slavery recruiters and sex trafficking are very prevalent. The United States’ struggles with recruiters in the form of everyday pimps on the street. It is common in major United States cities for pimps to convince or force young women to sell sex for cash to the pimps. One example of this is Clark Cash Money Johnson of Seattle, Washington. An average young American man from a lower socioeconomic background in the United States Pacific Northwest was seventeen at the time, when he convinced three women that they were dependant on him. Mr. Johnson then used these women to sell sex. One of these women was still a minor when she began this act. Clark Johnson stated about his victim that was a minor, “ I told (her) she and I could have a life together but that she needed to ‘work’ to make us money. (She) loved me and she agreed to be a prostitute” (Levi Pulkkinen).[1] This is an average case of human trafficking recruiters and probably the more common type in the United States. Young woman are forced to enter the sex industry through psychological or physical abuse.
Although sex trafficking also occurs in South America, the more form is debt contract slavery, which is the most rapidly growing form of slavery and the second largest form today (Modern day Slavery- 34).[2] People from South America are drawn to come work in the agriculture communities in the United States because of better wages. The people who are drawn to miss here are unable to get the necessary papers to come to the United States legally and get caught up in human trafficking. “My dream was to work like in Mexico but not with the same wage that I get there. When I came to the United States, I thought I could change my change jobs if I didn’t like one”, said Miguel a victim of debt contract slavery. Like Miguel many laborers looking for better wages try to get into the United States and are drawn by recruiters who offer to get them there. The recruiters do not tell the laborers that they are charging them for the process and that they will have to work at extremely low wages to pay off their debts. There are many types of slavery in South America but the most prevalent recruiters appears to be for debt bondage and sex trafficking.


Recruiters in Asia
Slavery is very common throughout Asia. In central Asian countries such as Uzbekistan, the government often participates in the recruitment process. Uzbekistan in Central Asia sends most of its school and college students into cotton fields for up to three months each year[3]. This demonstrates how extensively recruiters will vary from region to region. In China, the government looks the other way because it has long considered overseas Chinese a national asset. As more and more people leave china, unemployment decreases and foreign-exchange flows in from foreign counties (Peter Kwong’s China’s Human Traffickers 424).[4] The minimum government regulations make it more accessible for recruiters to target people because the recruiters aren’t worried about getting caught. In 2009 only five people were prosecuted for trafficking and the severity of their sentencing is unknown while the United States was able to obtain 103 convictions in the same year [5]. This number isn’t very high being that Japan is one of the higher imports of sex slaves. Unfortunately recruiters will continue to import slaves into Japan with the government having so few regulations.


Recruiters in the Middle East
The Middle East is known for its unequal treatment of women, leaving women especially vulnerable to recruiters. Domestic servitude and sex trafficking is very prominent there because of this reality. The lack of respect for women was particularly stark in the case of a father who sold his daughter, Mariam, into domestic servitude which she said led to her to be “taken to Dubai in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and kept in a house with 20 young girls, all of them sex workers” (IRAQ-SYRIA: Sex traffickers target women in war-torn Iraq). This is just one of many cases where the recruiters target women. The women usually sought after are women who are in economically bad situations with aspirations of improving their lifestyles. These women with ambition are targeted by recruiters.


Recruiters in Europe
A common misconception about Europe’s recruiters is that they are sly, young handsome recruiters who target negligent tourist women. However, there are other types of recruiters who operate across Europe as well. Recruiters are attempting to avoid fitting this common profile. Traffickers are far more diverse group than is often portrayed in the media and information campaigns. This makes sense, because potential migrants are, arguably, less likely to be suspicious of recruiters who do not conform to the trafficker stereotype .[6] A demonstration of this is a young woman named Svetlana who was lured away by a friend. “A friend of mine told me that I should go with her abroad, to work in the market. She took care of my documents, and I was sent through the city of Comrat, then to Ukraine and on to Turkey” (They Could Kill You, And No One Would Ever Know': Interview With A Trafficking Victim). This isn’t uncommon for victims to know their recruiters before being sent off, in 46 percent of cases, the recruiter was known to the victim (CNN Freedom project).[7] In Europe it is actually quite common for the recruiter to be a female.
Men remain prominent among recruiters. For instance a woman named Maria believed that she was being hired to be a house cleaner. Maria states, “The process I went through to get there was normal. Everything looked fine. There were two other girls with me. They were from the same region, but I didn't know them. I was going [to Italy] to work as a housekeeper” (Sex Traffickers Prey On Eastern Europeans). Maria was tricked by several men and forced into slavery. It is very common for recruiters to use trickery to lure people similar to Maria into the modern day trafficking.


Recruiters in Africa
People in certain parts of Africa are especially vulnerable to trafficking due to dire poverty. Poverty has led families to take desperate measures as seen in the increasing numbers of children being trafficked into exploitative labor and prostitution, especially in Nigeria and West Africa. (Nigeria/West Africa: Human trafficking).[8] Recruiters are able to prey on the less fortunate because families need the extra money. Most of these people are picked up by recruiters and shipped off to Europe where they will be sold into Europe’s sex industry. Much of Africa’s unfortunate economic status leads to many people being exploited by recruiters who take advantage of the situation. The majority of African women who are lured by recruiters will be sold in South Africa. South Africa is the primary African destination of trafficked women because it is the regional power, and its image as a destination of opportunities is regularly used by traffickers to lure women and girls into trafficking traps (Human Trafficking in Africa - A modern day evil).[9] Recruiters tend to target people in lower socioeconomic areas and sell them off in a wealthier area in order to make more profit. A majority of Africa’s trafficking industry is done effortlessly by recruiters because of certain desperate socioeconomic areas.

Recruiters of Disabled
Recruiting of the disabled is not given much recognition but it has become a significant dilemma in modern day slavery. Disabilities leaves people endangered to recruiters because they are that much more defenseless. A woman referred to as FV experienced this first hand when a man convinced this mentally disabled woman at the age of 16 that he could turn her into a model, he sexually exploited her on webcams for 5 years until he was finally caught.[10] Many other disabled victims have similarly experienced being taken advantage of. In China children are commonly taken at a young age and are physically mutilated by recruiters. These children are put in a high trafficked area of westerners to gain their sympathy while begging for money. Recruiters are often despicable and they view the mentally disabled as especially attractive targets.


Similarities shared
Recruiters around the globe exhibit some distinct differences from one another, but in many ways they are quite similar. Historically recruiters were thought of as men between the ages of about twenty-five to about forty. Although not all recruiters fit this profile they do have some common tendencies. Most recruiters are the same race as the people in which they recruit. This is how recruiters gain a target’s trust, convincing them of an available opportunity that they should take generally abroad. Recruiters almost universally employ technique designed to trick their victims to believe that the recruiter is going to help them in some way to prosper economically. Even though recruiters vary over vast regions they still share many qualities as one another.

Conclusion
There is a common misconception today that slavery is something of the past. Unfortunately this is false due to many factors. One of these factors is people known as recruiters who lure unsuspecting victims into the slave trade. There was a time in the past when these people were easily profiled but more recently recruiters have become more adapting, changing their image and methodologies so that they can evade detection and attract more unaware victims.

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[1] Levi Pulkkinen, “Beacon Hill teen tells of selling her body on Seattle Streets,” 29 Oct. 2011, Seattlepi.com, (accessed 14 Sep. 2011).
[2] Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd and Alex Kent Williamson, Modern Slavery (England: One World Publications), 34.
[3] “Stop forced child labor in Uzbekistan cotton fields,” http://www.laborrights.org/stop-child-labor/cotton-campaign/uzbekistan, (accessed 14 Sep. 2011).
[4] Peter Kwong, “China’s Human Traffickers,” The Nation, worldcat.org, (accessed 14 Sep. 2011) 422.
[5] “Trafficking in Persons report 2010,” US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/142760.htm, (accessed 14 Sep. 2011)
[6] European Society of Criminology, “European Journal of
Criminology,” worldcat.org, (thousand Oaks, Calif.).

[7] “The traffickers”, CNN, 1 June 2011, http://thecnnfreedomproject.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/01/, (accessed sep 14 2011)
[8] Adeze Ojukwu, “Nigeria/West Africa: Human trafficking,” Daily Champion News, 21 Sep 2006, http://www.stopdemand.org/afawcs0112878/ID=180/newsdetails.html, (accessed 14 Sep 2011).
[9] Consultancy Africa Intelligence, “ Human trafficking in Africa, A modern day evil,” http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=233&Itemid=156, (accessed 14 Sep. 2011).
[10] Amanda Kloer, “Five Arrested for Webcasting Sexual Torture of Mentally Disabled Woman,” September 10, 2010, http://news.change.org/stories/five-arrested-for-webcasting-sexual-torture-of-mentally-disabled-woman, (accessed 14 Sep. 2011).



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" IRIN Middle East | IRAQ-SYRIA: Sex traffickers target women in war-torn Iraq | Iraq | Syria | Emirats Arabes Unis | Children | Conflict | Gender Issues | Human Rights ." IRIN • humanitarian news and analysis from Africa, Asia and the Middle East - updated daily . http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=61903 (accessed September 14, 2011).
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Degorge, Barbera. "[Modern Day Slavery in the United Arab Emirates ]." worldcat.org. http://uwashington.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/1990366067695?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fresolver.lib.washington.edu%2Fresserv%3Furl_ver%3DZ39.88-2004%26amp%3Brfr_id%3Dinfo%253Asid%252Fuwashington.worldcat.org%253Aworldcat%26amp%3Brft_val_fmt%3Dinfo%253Aofi%25 (accessed September 14, 2011).
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